Donkey Behavior: Separating Common Myths from Scientific Evidence
A donkey that refuses to move forward, calls in distress when its companion leaves, or chases a dog across the pasture is responding to its surroundings through a combination of inherited tendencies, previous experience, and immediate needs. Understanding those influences helps explain behavior that people often dismiss as stubbornness, possessiveness, or unpredictability.
Domestic donkeys descended from the African wild ass, an animal adapted to environments where food and water could be scarce and widely scattered. That background helped shape a flexible social system, different from the relatively stable family groups commonly associated with free-ranging horses.
However, evolution does not provide a complete explanation for every donkey’s behavior. A donkey standing still might be investigating something unfamiliar, but it might also be frightened, confused, or experiencing pain. The same outward response can have several causes.
This article examines what research tells us about donkey behavior, where evolutionary explanations remain tentative, and how that knowledge can improve everyday care and handling. For an introduction to the differences among these equids, begin with Donkeys, Mules, and Hinnies: An Introductory Guide.
The Donkey’s Evolutionary Background
The domestic donkey belongs to the equid family, alongside horses and zebras. Its wild ancestor, the African wild ass, inhabited dry regions of northeastern Africa where survival depended on finding sufficient food and water across demanding landscapes.
Understanding that environment requires looking beyond the simple description of a “desert animal.” Dry habitats can contain patches of vegetation separated by considerable distances. Rainfall may be seasonal or unpredictable, and a productive feeding area may not remain productive throughout the year.
Under these conditions, the location of resources influences where animals travel, how closely they associate, and which reproductive strategies are successful.
Domestication added another layer to this history. A major genomic study published by Todd and colleagues in 2022 supported an African origin for donkey domestication around 5000 BCE. The researchers examined modern and ancient genomes to investigate how domestic donkeys subsequently spread across Africa and Eurasia. These findings concern ancestry and population history; they do not establish the evolutionary cause of a particular handling response. Bar-Ilan University
Three processes therefore need to be kept separate:
Evolution concerns inherited changes in populations over generations.
Domestication involves changes associated with living and reproducing under human influence.
Learning changes an individual animal’s behavior through experience.
A donkey’s response to a trailer may involve all three, but the immediate problem still needs to be assessed in that individual. Knowing where donkeys came from provides useful context. It does not tell us whether this donkey dislikes the ramp, fears separation, or remembers an uncomfortable journey.
Did you know?The 2022 genomic study included 207 modern donkeys, 31 ancient donkeys, and 15 wild equids. Genetic evidence can reveal population relationships across thousands of years, but it cannot directly explain why an individual donkey refuses to walk through a gate. Bar-Ilan University
Why Scattered Resources Favor Flexible Social Groups
Living in a group offers advantages, including access to social partners and opportunities to detect danger. It also creates costs. Every additional animal needs food, water, and space.
Where vegetation is abundant, several animals may feed close together without immediately exhausting the supply. Where suitable forage occurs in small patches, remaining in a large, tightly coordinated group can increase competition.
For ancestral wild asses, spreading out could help individuals obtain sufficient food. Females could move according to their own needs, while mothers maintained particularly important relationships with their offspring.
Field observations documented groups whose membership changed rather than remaining permanently fixed. Some adult males defended territories, while females moved through the landscape without necessarily belonging to a lasting group controlled by one male. Klingel’s observations of wild asses helped establish these differences in equid social organization. Wiley Online Library
Research on feral donkeys provides another useful comparison. In Moehlman’s study of Death Valley animals, 81.7% of observed groups contained fewer than five individuals. Their associations were often temporary. The same research also documented different social arrangements under wetter, more productive conditions, showing that donkey social organization can change with the environment.
Feral animals are descendants of domestic animals living without close human management. They offer valuable evidence about behavioral flexibility, although they are not identical to the ancestral wild population.
The practical lesson is that “donkeys live in small groups” describes a tendency under certain conditions, not a universal rule. It does not mean domestic donkeys prefer isolation, nor does it establish that two animals will automatically be compatible.
Pasture size, food distribution, age, sex, familiarity, and individual relationships all influence how a domestic group functions. Several donkeys sharing an enclosure may spend much of their time together, or they may divide into preferred partnerships.
Owners should therefore observe the relationships within the group rather than assuming that simply providing another animal satisfies every social need.
Why Donkeys Sometimes Stop Instead of Running
Horses are often associated with rapid flight when frightened. Donkeys have a reputation for stopping, looking, and declining to move toward something unfamiliar.
Research supports a difference in responses to certain situations, but the familiar claim that donkeys “never panic” is incorrect.
Vidament, Bonneau, and Lansade compared 242 young donkeys with 924 young draft horses using standardized behavioral tests. Donkeys moved more slowly around an unfamiliar object and more frequently refused to move forward toward an unfamiliar surface. However, when confronted with a sudden visual surprise, their flight responses were similar to those of the horses. The comparison involved yearlings and draft horses, so it should not be treated as a description of every donkey and horse. umrprc-ethologie-cognition.val-de-loire.hub.inrae.fr
A plausible evolutionary interpretation is that animals living in dispersed groups may benefit from assessing a possible threat rather than automatically following the movement of nearby companions. However, that explanation remains an interpretation. The experiment demonstrated behavioral differences; it did not reconstruct the evolutionary process that produced them.
For handlers, the distinction matters because a stationary donkey is not necessarily relaxed. An animal can remain still while uncertain or highly alert, then move suddenly when the situation changes.
Consider a donkey approaching a dark doorway. The handler may see an ordinary entrance, while the donkey encounters a change in light, footing, sound, and visibility. Pulling harder does not identify which feature is causing concern. Useful observations include where the donkey directs its attention, whether it approaches voluntarily when given space, and whether the response changes when the environment changes.
Horse Education Online’s articles on Equine Vision and Why Is My Horse Spooking at Nothing? provide related background on perception. These are horse-focused resources, so their specific research findings should not automatically be presented as donkey findings.
Did you know?A donkey’s tendency to hesitate at an unfamiliar surface does not protect a handler from a sudden flight response. The same animal may respond very differently to something it can investigate gradually and something that appears without warning.
Why “Stubborn” Is an Incomplete Explanation
Calling a donkey stubborn describes the handler’s frustration more clearly than it describes the cause of the behavior.
A donkey that refuses to move might be responding to:
An unfamiliar object, surface, or environment.
Separation from a preferred companion.
Pain or physical difficulty.
A cue it has not learned clearly.
Conflicting signals from the handler.
Previous experiences associated with that location or activity.
Several influences can operate together. A donkey may be worried about a trailer and uncomfortable walking up its ramp. Removing only one difficulty may not resolve the entire problem.
A more useful approach is to describe what happened without assigning motive. “She stopped when her companion disappeared behind the barn” provides information that “she decided to be difficult” does not.
The next step is to examine the sequence. What happened immediately before the stop? What did the handler do? What happened afterward? Does the same pattern occur in other places?
For example, a donkey that leads comfortably around the yard but stops at the pasture exit presents a different problem from one that has become reluctant to walk anywhere. The first pattern may involve location, expectation, or separation. The second raises broader concerns about health and comfort.
It also helps to ask whether the requested behavior has actually been taught. Being caught and haltered does not automatically mean an animal understands how to walk beside a person, stand away from a companion, or step onto unfamiliar footing.
Good handling requires more than waiting indefinitely. It involves identifying the difficulty, making the task understandable, and building an appropriate response in manageable stages.
For a broader introduction to interpreting behavior, read The Study of Equine Behavior: Why Does My Horse Do “That”?.
Why Donkeys Form Strong Attachments
An animal can live within a flexible social system and still develop a strong preference for a particular companion.
These are different aspects of social behavior. Group structure describes how animals associate across a population. A preferred relationship describes the connection between particular individuals.
Murray, Byrne, and D’Eath investigated companion preferences in domestic donkeys in 2013. Their study involved 55 animals, with observations of which donkeys remained near one another. A subset then participated in a choice test involving a preferred companion and another donkey. The results supported both selective social relationships and recognition of preferred partners. SRUC, Scotland's Rural College
This type of relationship is often called a pair bond. Here, the term refers to a preferred social partnership. It does not necessarily mean a reproductive pair.
The study supports the observation that one companion may matter more to a donkey than another available animal. It does not establish precisely why such relationships evolved.
In practical terms, providing company and preserving an established relationship are not always equivalent. Moving a donkey into a group of unfamiliar animals may offer social contact while still removing the individual it relied on.
Owners can learn a great deal by observing animals when no feeding, handling, or other activity is directing their movement. Which donkeys rest together? Which approach one another voluntarily? Does one repeatedly follow the other when the group spreads out?
Proximity should be interpreted carefully. Two animals standing at the same feeder may simply want the same food. A consistent preference across different activities and locations provides more useful evidence.
A donkey may also have several valued social relationships rather than one exclusive partner. Management should respond to the relationships actually present instead of forcing every group into a fixed “best friend” model.
Did you know?Researchers can investigate companionship by examining repeated choices about proximity. This allows them to distinguish a preferred relationship from two animals that happen to occupy the same space.
Why Separation Can Become a Welfare Problem
Separation changes more than the location of a companion. It can remove a familiar source of social contact while also introducing a different routine, unfamiliar surroundings, or an uncomfortable procedure.
A donkey being transported to a clinic may experience several of these changes at once. A companion left at home may also become distressed.
Where practical and medically appropriate, plans for transport, veterinary treatment, and changes of home should account for established bonds. Donkey veterinary guidance specifically recognizes the value of keeping a bonded companion visible during procedures when circumstances permit. IVIS
This does not mean bonded animals can never learn to spend time apart. Necessary separations are better prepared for gradually, with attention to both animals’ responses, rather than first attempted during an emergency.
Appetite deserves particular attention. Donkeys are susceptible to hyperlipaemia, a potentially life-threatening disorder involving excessive fat mobilization and increased circulating triglycerides. Stress, reduced food intake, and underlying disease can contribute. Separation from a bonded companion is a recognized risk factor. The Donkey Sanctuary
An animal that becomes dull or stops eating should not be left to “get over” the separation. Contact a veterinarian promptly.
The same principle applies when a companion dies or must move away permanently. The remaining donkey needs observation, an appropriate companionship plan, and veterinary advice if its appetite or general condition changes.
Territorial Behavior, Aggression, and Livestock Guarding
In ancestral wild ass populations, some adult males defended geographic areas associated with access to resources or mating opportunities. This differs from the cohesive family-group pattern commonly described in free-ranging horses.
Territoriality concerns defending an area. It should not be used as a catch-all explanation for every bite, kick, chase, or threat displayed by a domestic donkey.
Aggression can also involve fear, reproductive behavior, competition around food, discomfort during handling, or a learned response. The setting helps distinguish these possibilities.
A donkey that threatens another animal near a feeder presents a different situation from one that turns defensively when a painful foot is handled. Both behaviors may create a safety problem, but they require different investigations.
Some donkeys confront unfamiliar dogs or other animals, helping explain their use as livestock guardians. Nevertheless, an individual’s willingness to chase a dog does not prove that it will safely and reliably protect sheep, goats, or calves.
A 2026 global review examined 58 publications concerning livestock-guardian donkeys. Only 5.1% of the reviewed literature consisted of experimental studies. The authors identified potential benefits alongside substantial gaps in evidence about effectiveness across different settings. PubMed
A separate 2026 field study in an African savanna reported findings consistent with a protective effect after donkeys were introduced alongside cattle. However, the researchers also identified alternative explanations and limitations in observing direct interactions with predators. University of Brighton
These findings support careful, context-specific assessment. They do not justify treating every donkey as a dependable guardian.
For owners, compatibility remains essential. A donkey capable of injuring a predator may also injure a dog or smaller livestock. Introductions, fencing, supervision, and the donkey’s own companionship needs must all be considered. Guarding expectations should never replace a complete livestock protection plan.
Why Donkeys Bray
Braying is a form of communication, and its meaning depends on the situation.
Domestic donkeys may bray in anticipation of food, in response to another donkey, during social separation, or in reproductive and territorial contexts. Both males and females vocalize. A call can also become associated with a predictable response from a person.
Long-distance communication offers a plausible advantage to animals that sometimes live far apart. A powerful call could help advertise an animal’s presence or maintain contact across a dispersed population. However, the usefulness of a behavior today does not, by itself, prove exactly how that behavior evolved.
For owners, the immediate pattern is usually more informative than a general evolutionary explanation.
A donkey that calls when it hears the feed-room door may be responding to a learned signal. One that begins calling after its companion leaves may be responding to separation. A sudden increase in vocalization accompanied by pacing, poor appetite, or altered social behavior warrants closer investigation.
Recording when the calling occurs can help:
What happened immediately beforehand?
Where were the other animals?
Was food or human attention expected?
What did the donkey do after calling?
Is the pattern new?
Braying should not automatically be interpreted as happiness, anger, or an attempt to annoy the owner. A single sound does not provide a complete account of the animal’s condition.
The same caution applies to quietness. A donkey that stops vocalizing may be settled, but an unusually withdrawn animal also deserves attention.
Independence, Intelligence, and Learning
Donkeys are often described as independent because they may hesitate rather than immediately following a handler or another animal.
Their ancestral social system offers a reasonable context for that description. Animals moving through a variable landscape need to respond to local conditions. However, the direct evolutionary connection between dispersed living and a particular domestic training response has not been experimentally established.
Hesitation also tells us little about intelligence. An animal that does not perform a task may not understand the cue, may find the task uncomfortable, or may be motivated to do something else.
Research on donkey behavior and cognition documents learning and recognition abilities while also identifying substantial gaps in the evidence. Broad claims that donkeys are universally smarter, slower, or more logical than horses go beyond what a single test can demonstrate. research.unipd.it
Make the requested behavior clear
Training becomes easier to evaluate when the task is specific. “Behave for the farrier” includes several separate skills: standing in a suitable location, accepting touch, shifting weight, lifting a foot, and remaining comfortable while it is held.
If the donkey struggles, identify which component is difficult. A problem lifting the foot should not automatically be treated as a problem standing still.
Build skills in small stages
As a practical example, preparation for foot handling might begin with comfortable contact on the shoulder or hip, followed by brief contact farther down the limb. Later steps can involve a small weight shift and a short lift.
The progression should respond to the animal’s comfort and understanding. It is an illustrative training sequence, not a substitute for assessing pain or unsafe behavior.
Make consequences understandable
Positive reinforcement means adding something the animal values after a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior recurring.
Negative reinforcement means removing something the animal seeks to avoid after a response. A familiar example is releasing light lead-rope pressure when the animal takes the requested step.
These terms describe how behavior changes. “Positive” and “negative” mean addition and removal, not good and bad. Timing matters because the consequence must relate clearly to the intended response.
Read Punishment and Reinforcement: The Principles of Horse Training for a fuller explanation.
Donkey-specific training guidance also emphasizes positive experiences and manageable learning opportunities. Food rewards, when used, should be suitable for the individual’s diet and delivered in a way that supports safe behavior. The Donkey Sanctuary of Canada
Reading Body Language Without Guessing at Motives
Donkeys communicate through posture, movement, facial expression, vocalization, smell, and physical contact.
The useful question is not simply, “What do backward ears mean?” It is, “What is happening around this donkey, and what else is its body doing?”
An ear movement may reflect attention toward a sound. Ears held back alongside tension, a threatening head movement, and an attempt to bite present a different picture.
Observe the whole sequence:
Where is the donkey directing its attention?
Is its posture relaxed or increasingly tense?
Does it approach, withdraw, freeze, or threaten?
What changes when a person or another animal moves closer?
Does the response stop when the situation changes?
Description should come before interpretation. “He turned his hindquarters toward me when I touched his flank” is a useful observation. Deciding immediately that he is dominant or disrespectful can obscure pain, fear, or a previously learned response.
Familiarity also matters. A donkey that normally approaches promptly but begins remaining apart from the group has changed its behavior, even if it does not display a dramatic sign.
Horse Education Online’s Equine Behavior Study Kit offers broader study of communication and learning. Readers interested in the biological systems underlying perception and movement can also explore The Equine Nervous System and The Equine Nervous System: Neuroanatomy and Behavior.
These resources provide background for observation. An individual behavior still needs to be interpreted in context.
When a Behavior Change May Indicate Pain
Donkeys can show illness and discomfort through changes that are easy to overlook. Their reputation for being quiet or stoic should encourage closer observation, not an assumption that they tolerate pain unusually well.
Research examining donkey behavior has helped establish detailed descriptions of their normal behavioral repertoire as a foundation for identifying pain-related changes. This work reinforces the importance of systematic observation rather than relying only on obvious struggling or dramatic reactions. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Changes worth reporting to a veterinarian include reduced appetite, unusual withdrawal, reluctance to move, altered resting behavior, and a new objection to routine handling. A sudden deterioration should not be treated primarily as a training problem.
Colic can be particularly difficult for owners to recognize when the signs are subdued. Contact a veterinarian immediately when a donkey appears unwell or colic is suspected. Waiting for vigorous rolling or other dramatic signs may delay care. The Donkey Sanctuary
For general background, see Colic in Horses: Early Signs, Causes, and What to Do and Equine Colic: An Advanced Overview. Donkey-specific assessment remains important.
Foot discomfort can also affect willingness to walk or stand for handling. A donkey that repeatedly pulls away during hoof care needs an assessment of the task’s physical demands as well as its training history.
Our article, What the Peer-Reviewed Literature Does and Doesn’t Say About Donkey Conformation and Hoof Care, explains why donkey structure and hoof care should be evaluated on their own evidence.
Did you know?An unusually dull donkey may need urgent veterinary attention even when it is standing quietly. Reduced appetite and subtle behavioral changes can be early signs of serious illness, including conditions associated with hyperlipaemia. The Donkey Sanctuary
How Management Influences Everyday Behavior
Evolutionary history helps explain why certain needs exist. Daily management determines how easily an animal can meet them.
A donkey may have appropriate food available but still struggle if another animal blocks access. It may have companionship but no opportunity to move away from an incompatible individual. A shelter may be spacious inside while its narrow entrance creates conflict.
Evaluating management therefore requires watching what happens, not simply listing what has been provided.
Feeding is one important example. Donkeys generally require fewer calories than similarly sized ponies and benefit from suitable fibrous diets. Easy access to rich feed can create health problems without necessarily providing appropriate opportunities for prolonged feeding behavior. Dietary planning should account for body condition, dental health, workload, and medical needs. The Donkey Sanctuary
Horse Education Online’s Equine Metabolic Syndrome article provides related background on metabolic health, although donkey assessment and feeding advice should come from professionals familiar with the species.
Practical management questions include:
Can every donkey reach feed, water, and shelter without being repeatedly displaced?
Can preferred companions remain near one another?
Is there sufficient space to avoid an unwanted interaction?
Are footing and access routes comfortable?
Does the routine provide appropriate movement and occupation?
Changes should be evaluated by their results. Adding another feeding location may reduce competition, but only if the animals can use it safely. Introducing an unfamiliar object may provide interest for one donkey and concern for another.
For a broader discussion of housing, activity, and behavioral opportunities, read The Influence of Human Management on Equine Behavior.
Applying the Evidence to the Donkey in Front of You
A useful behavioral assessment begins with a specific description and a comparison with the animal’s normal behavior.
Instead of recording “difficult today,” write down what changed: the donkey stopped at the gate, its companion remained in the pasture, and it walked normally after they were reunited. That observation does not prove the complete cause, but it gives a veterinarian or behavior professional something concrete to evaluate.
Record appetite, movement, social contact, and the circumstances surrounding the response. Short videos can help when obtained safely and without deliberately provoking the behavior.
Evolutionary explanations are most useful when they improve the questions we ask. They encourage us to consider resource distribution, preferred relationships, unfamiliar surroundings, and different responses to perceived danger.
They become less useful when they replace observation with a fixed story. “Donkeys are naturally cautious” should not prevent investigation of a new reluctance to walk. “Donkeys form strong bonds” should not prevent thoughtful preparation for necessary separations.
Continued study can help owners make these distinctions. Explore the Equine Study Resources for related study kits, flashcards, posters, and learning materials, then apply that knowledge through careful observation of each animal’s circumstances.
Frequently Asked Questions About Donkey Behavior
1. Why are donkeys considered stubborn?
Donkeys often hesitate or stop in situations where people expect immediate movement. That response may involve uncertainty, fear, discomfort, unclear training, or previous experience. “Stubborn” does not identify the cause. Describe when the behavior occurs and investigate changes in health, environment, companionship, and handling.
2. Do donkeys have a flight response?
Yes. Donkeys can flee rapidly when frightened. Research found that young donkeys more often hesitated around certain unfamiliar objects or surfaces than young draft horses, but responded similarly to a sudden visual surprise. A stationary donkey should never be assumed incapable of sudden movement. umrprc-ethologie-cognition.val-de-loire.hub.inrae.fr
3. Why do donkeys become attached to one companion?
Domestic donkeys can form preferred social relationships and recognize particular companions. Research supports these selective bonds, although their precise evolutionary origin remains uncertain. An established companion may therefore provide something that the presence of an unfamiliar animal does not. SRUC, Scotland's Rural College
4. Can a donkey live alone?
Routine solitary housing should not be justified by the fact that wild asses sometimes live in dispersed groups. Domestic donkeys need appropriate social opportunities. A compatible donkey companion is generally a sensible starting point, while existing relationships and individual circumstances should guide the arrangement. Seek donkey-specific advice when planning companionship.
5. Why does my donkey bray when I arrive?
Your arrival may predict food, attention, or another familiar activity. Donkeys also bray during social communication and separation. Look at the timing and accompanying behavior. Calling when the feed bucket appears has a different context from calling repeatedly after a companion disappears. The Donkey Sanctuary
6. Are donkeys naturally aggressive toward dogs?
Some donkeys respond defensively or aggressively toward dogs, but individuals differ. Familiarity with one dog does not guarantee safety around another. Do not allow chasing or uncontrolled introductions. A donkey can seriously injure a dog, and an unfamiliar or threatening dog can also injure or distress the donkey.
7. Do donkeys make reliable livestock guardians?
Some can contribute to livestock protection, but reliability varies with the individual, livestock, predator, and environment. Research identifies promising results alongside substantial evidence gaps. Guardian use requires careful assessment and must account for compatibility, supervision, fencing, and the donkey’s welfare. PubMed
8. Can donkeys be trained using positive reinforcement?
Yes. Suitable rewards can help establish desired behavior when timing and task progression are clear. Keep food rewards appropriate for the donkey’s health and diet, and teach safe behavior around their delivery. Training should also account for pain, fear, and the animal’s ability to perform the task. The Donkey Sanctuary of Canada
9. What should I do if my donkey suddenly refuses to move?
Prioritize safety and assess the context. Look for changes in footing, surroundings, companionship, and general condition. Sudden or persistent reluctance, especially with reduced appetite, dullness, or abnormal movement, warrants prompt veterinary advice. Do not assume the donkey needs stronger handling or force it to continue exercising.
10. Can separating bonded donkeys affect their health?
Yes. Separation can cause distress and may reduce appetite. Stress and inadequate intake can contribute to hyperlipaemia in susceptible donkeys. Prepare for necessary separations where possible, monitor both animals, and contact a veterinarian promptly if either becomes dull, eats less, or otherwise appears unwell. The Donkey Sanctuary
References and Further Reading
Klingel, H. (1977). Observations on social organization and behaviour of African and Asiatic wild asses (Equus africanus and E. hemionus). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 44, 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1977.tb00999.x
Moehlman, P. D. (1998). Feral asses (Equus africanus): Intraspecific variation in social organization in arid and mesic habitats. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 60, 171–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00163-4
Murray, L. M. A., Byrne, K., & D’Eath, R. B. (2013). Pair-bonding and companion recognition in domestic donkeys, Equus asinus. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 143, 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2012.11.005
De Santis, M., et al. (2021). Donkey behaviour and cognition: A literature review. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 244, 105485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105485
Vidament, M., Bonneau, C., & Lansade, L. (2023). Personality of equids: Donkeys and draught horses behave differently in fear and tactile sensitivity tests. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2023.106113
Todd, E. T., et al. (2022). The genomic history and global expansion of domestic donkeys. Science, 377, 1172–1180. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo3503
Metzler, et al. (2026). A global review of Livestock Guardian Donkeys (LGDks) in the prevention of carnivore depredation. Publication record and abstract.
Jhala, D. Y., et al. (2026). Donkeys as livestock guardians against predators in an African savanna. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 72, article 52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-026-02072-0
The Donkey Sanctuary. Understanding donkey behaviour, Hyperlipaemia in donkeys, and Feeding donkeys.
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